Unpacking The Iran-Iraq War: A Deep Dive Into Its Complex Origins

Cydney Hartmann 22 Jun 2025

The Iran-Iraq War, a brutal and protracted conflict that spanned nearly eight years, left an indelible mark on the Middle East and the global geopolitical landscape. Often referred to as the First Persian Gulf War, its origins are rooted in a complex tapestry of historical grievances, ideological clashes, and regional power dynamics. Understanding the multifaceted reasons for the Iran-Iraq War is crucial to comprehending the region's subsequent conflicts and enduring tensions.

From ancient border disputes to the seismic shifts brought about by the 1979 Iranian Revolution, the factors that propelled Iraq into invading its neighbor in September 1980 were numerous and deeply intertwined. This article delves into the primary drivers behind this devastating conflict, exploring the historical context, the revolutionary fervor, and the strategic calculations that led to one of the 20th century's deadliest wars.

Historical Roots of Conflict: A Frontier of Disputes
The Seismic Shift of 1979: Iran's Revolution
Saddam Hussein's Grand Ambitions
Iran's Vulnerability: A Strategic Opportunity
The Onset of Hostilities and Early Gains
The Brutality of "War of the Cities" and Chemical Warfare
The Long Road to Ceasefire
The Enduring Legacy and Human Cost

Historical Roots of Conflict: A Frontier of Disputes

To truly grasp the reasons for the Iran-Iraq War, one must first look back through centuries of shared, yet often contentious, history. The frontier between Iran and Iraq has been subject to dispute for nearly five centuries. This long-standing territorial disagreement laid a foundational layer of tension that would later be exploited and exacerbated by political developments.

A Frontier of Disputes

The earliest attempts to formalize this volatile border date back to the 16th century. The first treaty addressing this frontier was concluded in 1535 between the Persian and Ottoman Empires. Over the centuries, numerous agreements and conflicts attempted to define the exact demarcation, particularly concerning the Shatt al-Arab waterway (Arvand Rud in Persian), a vital artery for both nations' maritime trade and access to the Persian Gulf. Control over this waterway, rich in oil and strategic importance, remained a persistent point of contention, symbolizing broader struggles for regional dominance. While treaties were signed, their interpretations often differed, leading to continuous low-level skirmishes and diplomatic spats that kept the border dispute simmering for generations. This historical backdrop meant that any future political instability could easily ignite long-held resentments, providing a ready-made pretext for conflict.

The Seismic Shift of 1979: Iran's Revolution

While historical grievances provided a backdrop, the immediate catalyst for the Iran-Iraq War was undeniably the 1979 Iranian Revolution. This momentous event fundamentally altered the regional balance of power and introduced a potent ideological dimension to the already strained relations between Iran and Iraq. Relations with Iran had grown increasingly strained after the Shah was overthrown in 1979, signaling a dramatic departure from the secular, pro-Western monarchy that had long been a regional counterweight.

The Spread of Revolutionary Fervor

Following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iraq’s Ba’athist regime became increasingly concerned about the spread of Shia revolutionary fervor that threatened its secular Sunni-dominated government. Iraq, despite being governed by a Sunni minority, had a significant Shia majority population, many of whom felt marginalized and oppressed. Ruhollah Khomeini, the spiritual leader of the Iranian Revolution, proclaimed his policy of exporting the revolution, openly calling for the overthrow of "corrupt" regimes in the region. This rhetoric was particularly alarming to Saddam Hussein's government in Baghdad, which feared that Iran's revolutionary ideals could incite unrest among Iraq's own Shia population, potentially leading to a domestic uprising.

Iraq recognized Iran’s new Shiʿi Islamic government, but the Iranian leaders would have nothing to do with the Baʿath regime, which they denounced as secular and illegitimate. This ideological chasm deepened the animosity, transforming a geopolitical rivalry into a religious and political crusade from Iran's perspective. The new Iranian government saw Saddam's regime as an extension of the Western-backed, corrupt systems they had just overthrown, while Saddam viewed Khomeini's revolutionary zeal as an existential threat to his rule and the stability of the entire region. This ideological clash became one of the most significant reasons for the Iran-Iraq War, providing a moral justification for both sides to engage in conflict.

Saddam Hussein's Grand Ambitions

Beyond the defensive posture against revolutionary Iran, Saddam Hussein harbored significant expansionist ambitions that played a pivotal role in his decision to initiate hostilities. He envisioned Iraq as the undisputed leader of the Arab world, replacing Egypt's waning influence and countering Iran's growing regional power.

Expanding Influence and Prestige

Saddam knew that achieving these aims through a short and decisive war against Iran would expand Iraq’s influence, power, and prestige in the Middle East. A swift victory would not only neutralize the ideological threat from Tehran but also solidify Iraq's position as a dominant regional player, particularly in the oil-rich Persian Gulf. He sought to assert Iraqi control over the Shatt al-Arab waterway definitively and perhaps even annex oil-rich Iranian territories in Khuzestan, which had a significant Arab population. This strategic calculation, fueled by personal ambition and a desire for regional hegemony, was a core reason for the Iran-Iraq War. Saddam believed that a preemptive strike would secure these objectives before Iran could fully consolidate its revolutionary government and rebuild its military capabilities.

Iran's Vulnerability: A Strategic Opportunity

Saddam's decision to launch the invasion was also heavily influenced by his perception of Iran's internal weakness and military disarray following the revolution. The third reason Saddam therefore began the war in September 1980 was because Iran was poorly prepared for war at the time.

The revolutionary upheaval had led to a purge of the Shah's military officers, many of whom were executed or imprisoned. The armed forces were in a state of disarray, lacking experienced leadership, spare parts for their largely American-made equipment, and cohesive command structures. Furthermore, the international community was wary of the new Iranian regime, and many Western powers, concerned about the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, were quietly sympathetic to Iraq or at least unwilling to strongly condemn its actions. This perceived window of opportunity, where Iran was at its weakest and most isolated, presented Saddam with what he believed was the perfect moment to strike and achieve his objectives with minimal resistance. He calculated that a swift victory would be possible before Iran could recover its military strength.

The Onset of Hostilities and Early Gains

The war between Iran and Iraq, lasting nearly eight years, commenced with the Iraqi invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980, and ended with the bilateral acceptance of the UN Security Council Resolution 598 on 20 July 1988. Active hostilities began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran and lasted for nearly eight years, until the acceptance of United Nations Security Council Resolution 598 by both sides.

In the first stage, Iraq invaded Iran and made rapid progress before being halted in the Iranian desert. Iraqi forces pushed deep into Iranian territory, particularly in the oil-rich province of Khuzestan, aiming to seize key cities and secure control of the Shatt al-Arab. However, despite Iran's initial disorganization, a fierce and determined resistance, fueled by revolutionary zeal, soon emerged. The initial Iraqi momentum stalled as Iranian forces, including the newly formed Revolutionary Guard Corps and mobilized volunteers, began to push back. After two years, Iran had recaptured its territories and cut Iraq off from the sea ports, turning the tide of the war and transforming it from an Iraqi invasion into a grinding war of attrition on Iraqi soil. This shift marked a critical turning point, prolonging the conflict far beyond Saddam's initial expectations.

The Brutality of "War of the Cities" and Chemical Warfare

As the war dragged on, both sides resorted to increasingly brutal tactics, reflecting the deep-seated animosity and the high stakes involved. The conflict evolved into a devastating war of attrition, characterized by trench warfare reminiscent of World War I, but also by indiscriminate attacks on civilian populations.

Chemical Weapons and Missile Strikes

Both sides engaged in the 'war of the cities', killing hundreds of thousands of civilians. This involved reciprocal missile attacks on major urban centers, including the capitals, Tehran and Baghdad, designed to break the enemy's morale. These attacks caused widespread destruction and immense human suffering, turning everyday life into a constant state of fear.

Further escalating the brutality, Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons in battles during early 1988 marked a horrific chapter in the conflict. Saddam Hussein's regime deployed mustard gas and nerve agents against Iranian troops and even against its own Kurdish population in northern Iraq (e.g., Halabja). This egregious violation of international law, largely met with silence or weak condemnation from the international community, inflicted terrible casualties and long-term health problems on survivors. The renewed wave of Iraqi missile strikes on Iranian cities, including the capital, Tehran, in the final stages of the war, combined with the devastating effects of chemical weapons, put immense pressure on Iran to accept a ceasefire. These desperate measures by Iraq underscore the intensity and mercilessness of the conflict, and were critical factors in pushing Iran towards a resolution.

The Long Road to Ceasefire

Despite the immense human and economic toll, the war continued for nearly eight years, with neither side able to achieve a decisive victory. The international community, increasingly alarmed by the scale of the conflict and its destabilizing effects on global oil supplies, intensified efforts to broker a peace.

UN Resolution 598 and Its Acceptance

Fighting was ended by a 1988 ceasefire, though the resumption of normal diplomatic relations and the withdrawal of troops did not take place until 1990. The key turning point was the acceptance of United Nations Security Council Resolution 598 by both sides. This resolution, adopted in July 1987, called for an immediate ceasefire, withdrawal of forces to international borders, and negotiations for a comprehensive peace settlement. Iran initially was reluctant to accept this resolution, viewing it as insufficient and biased. However, a combination of factors finally secured its acceptance. These included the crippling impact of the 'war of the cities', the devastating effects of Iraq's chemical weapons use, the exhaustion of Iran's human and material resources, and increasing international pressure, including a naval presence by Western powers in the Persian Gulf. For Iran, continuing the war became unsustainable, and Khomeini famously described accepting the ceasefire as "drinking from a poisoned chalice," highlighting the immense difficulty of the decision. This acceptance brought an end to active hostilities, though the wounds of the war would take much longer to heal.

The Enduring Legacy and Human Cost

The Iran-Iraq War stands as one of the 20th century's most devastating conflicts, with a staggering human cost and profound long-term consequences for both nations and the broader Middle East. Estimates of total casualties range from one million to twice that number, making it one of the deadliest conventional wars since World War II. Millions more were displaced, injured, or suffered from the psychological trauma of prolonged conflict.

The war reshaped the political landscape of the region. For Iraq, the war, though initially intended to boost Saddam's prestige, ultimately left the country heavily indebted and militarized, setting the stage for its later invasion of Kuwait and subsequent conflicts. For Iran, the war fostered a deep sense of national resilience and self-reliance, but also a profound wariness of foreign meddling. Experts see chances of that effect as especially strong in Iran, where many have deep wariness of foreign meddling and are shaped by the memory of a vicious years-long war in the 1980s following an invasion by Iraq (supported by the U.S.). This memory continues to influence Iran's foreign policy and its approach to regional security. The conflict also solidified the ideological divide between revolutionary Iran and its Arab neighbors, contributing to ongoing proxy conflicts and sectarian tensions across the region. The reasons for the Iran-Iraq War are therefore not merely historical footnotes but continue to resonate in contemporary geopolitical dynamics.

Conclusion

The Iran-Iraq War was a tragic culmination of centuries of border disputes, exacerbated by the revolutionary fervor of 1979 and Saddam Hussein's ambitious pursuit of regional dominance. From the historical frontier disagreements dating back to 1535 to the ideological clash between Iran's new Shiʿi Islamic government and Iraq's secular Ba’athist regime, multiple factors converged to ignite the conflict. Saddam's strategic miscalculation regarding Iran's post-revolutionary weakness provided the immediate impetus for the invasion in September 1980, hoping for a swift victory that would expand Iraq's influence and prestige.

However, the war quickly devolved into a brutal, protracted struggle marked by the "war of the cities" and Iraq's horrific use of chemical weapons. The conflict, which ultimately claimed millions of lives, only ended with the acceptance of UN Security Council Resolution 598 in 1988, a decision reluctantly made by Iran under immense pressure. The enduring legacy of this devastating war continues to shape the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East, influencing regional alliances, national identities, and the deep-seated mistrust that persists between nations. Understanding these complex reasons for the Iran-Iraq War is essential for anyone seeking to grasp the intricacies of modern Middle Eastern history and its ongoing challenges.

What are your thoughts on the primary drivers of this conflict? Share your insights in the comments below, or explore other articles on our site to deepen your understanding of Middle Eastern history.

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